Phoenician Society: Seafaring and Maritime Knowledge

Phoenician Society: Seafaring and Maritime Knowledge Discuss the role of seafaring and maritime knowledge within Phoenician society and its expansion. Introduction As a people the Phoenicians endured for some three thousand years and were already flourishing by 3,000 B.C. but it was not until about 1100 B.C., with the demise of the existing dominant peoples in the area, that the Phoenicians came to the fore as a significant force. From this time, until around 600 B.C., they dominated the Mediterranean by trading and establishing colonies one of the most important being Carthage. The success of their culture seems mainly to have been due to the proximity of the Mediterranean that encouraged dependence on seafaring and trade. Indeed, as Holst[1] indicates, international trade formed part of the guiding principles on which the Phoenician civilization was founded that also included a commitment to resilient partnerships, peaceful settlement of disputes, equality, privacy, religious freedom and respect of women. Although the majority of Phoenician trade was initially land based, a significant amount began to take place by sea[2] testified by the we alth of Tyre that, along with Byblos, Sidon, Arados and Simyra, were the main home-based Phoenician sea ports. Initially, Phoenician sea trade was mainly with the Greeks involving glass, slaves and Tyrian purple dye made from a sea shell called Murex and textiles coloured with such dyes formed one of the main Phoenician exports. Most of the major Mediterranean countries were involved in trade with the Phoenicians that included such commodities as cotton, timber, wool, precious stones, embroidery, wine, corn and various other foodstuff including spices whereas countries as far away as Spain traded metals such as tin, iron and lead.[3] The Importance of Trade Trade and colonisation originally centred on bartering indigenous timber as well as fishing skills, the latter of which is thought to have provided the competence for later seafaring abilities.[4] The far reaching sea trade of the Phoenicians took two forms – with existing Phoenician colonies and countries in navigable reach. The colonies provided a means by which the home country could be assured of supplies of goods deemed essential. In this respect, Cyprus became a colony to ensure the supply of wood and copper, Sardinia and Spain for useful metals. In return for such goods, Phoenicia supplied such finished items as cotton and linen, pottery, ornaments, weapons, and glass. It was not, however, just with the Mediterranean that trade occurred but also with the Propontis and ports within the Black Sea.[5] The dominance of Phoenicians in seafaring has not gone without criticism however as early reports of such supremacy in Homer’s Odyssey, and also by Herodotus, has been viewed by some modern commentators as erroneous.[6] The extent of Phoenician preeminence in this respect seems to have been settled by Bass’s underwater excavations of the Cape Gelidonya wreck that highlights the extent of Phoenician trade.[7] The archaeological evidence from this excavation seems therefore to support the dominance of Phoenician seafaring from 1200 B.C. onwards. The recent discovery of two exceptionally large Phoenician merchant ships adds further substance to this view.[8] It is probable that the Phoenician maritime empire was preceded by trade with various outposts throughout the Mediterranean or otherwise began as safe anchorage points along the coast.[9] It was only later that these places became colonies set up to protect Phoenician interests that required ships of war which, unlike merchant vessels were employed all year round,[10] to protect both colonies and trade routes. The Phoenician character of many of these ports was lost due to the rise and dominance of other powers such as the Greeks and Romans that has masked the extent of Phoenician influence. Importantly, trade by sea was linked to specialist product areas that otherwise would not have come together that allowed the Phoenicians to establish a rate of exchange to their advantage.[11] Transportation of various metals available in the western Mediterranean by sea, such as Spanish silver, thus allowed the Phoenicians to link the demand in the east, from countries like Assyria etc., to the raw material centres of the west. The Phoenicians also took advantage of turning the raw materials transported from the west into quality refined goods to be later exported. These products, because they tended to be more refined and better quality than what most other countries could supply, were therefore much sought after and such goods have been found in western ports such as Carthage.[12] Moreover, the direct sea route through the Mediterranean provided the best means of direct and efficient transport of materials and products and the extent of this trade along the Mediterranean is confirmed by the fact that Phoenician coins came to be manufactured in Tyre from the fifth century B.C. onwards.[13] The Extent of Phoenician Trade Links It is thought that the growth in Assyrian power and pressure on the coastal cities first led the Phoenicians to turn to seafaring.[14] In this respect, Assyrian power is thought to have blocked access to resources to the east to the extent that the Phoenicians were obliged to turn west towards the Mediterranean for raw materials.[15] Others, however, contend that it was the growth in Assyrian wealth and power that stimulated Phoenician interest in Mediterranean seafaring because of the increased demands for products.[16] This could have likewise been hastened by the economic growth and increased demand of Tyre and other Phoenician ports for raw materials. It is likely, however, that rather than one factor there was a set of interrelated events involving political, historical, economic criteria that led to the Pheonician exploitation of the Mediterranean. Indeed, Tyre and associated ports were ideally situated to act as a conduit through which the products and resources of the Mediter ranean and countries to the east could be exchanged.[17] Moreover, a massive investment in time and resources would have been required to mount expeditions throughout the Mediterranean by sea that suggests Tyre was economically and politically secure. The exploits of the Phoenicians in the Mediterranean should not be viewed as exploration as most of the main sea routes had been charted during the Bronze Age. Rather the Phoenicians were able to use and improve their maritime skills to become the dominant force in the Mediterranean for six hundred years. Yet, there are reports that they ventured much further afield which suggest exploration was part of a general outlook. For example, Herodotus reports that they sailed down the Red Sea to circumnavigate Africa returning via the Straits of Gibraltar.[18] Some even propose that they may have voyaged as far as southern Britain to acquire Cornish tin but this was probably based on indirect rather than direct trade.[19] In this respect, reports of a tin ingot discovered in a Cornish harbour similar to those of ancient Crete remain controversial.[20] The Veneti of Brittany may also have actually been Phoenicians who controlled the trade route to Britain and were thought to be adept seafare rs. The control of trade routes seems to have been a characteristic of Phoenician dominance in that this allowed more exclusive access to resources around and outside the Mediterranean that helped to reinforce Phoenician power. The interest in regions outside the Mediterranean is supported by the notion that some coastal ports such as the present Portuguese port known as Peniche is claimed to derive from the Greek for Phoenicia.[21] Moreover, there are many Phoenician remains to be found along the Portuguese coast.[22] Such exploits beyond the Mediterranean may have partially been encouraged by the fact that the Greeks had prevented Carthage from gaining access to the home ports.[23] Indeed, it may have been the rise in Greek power that led to Carthage becoming such an important city port for the Phoenicians in the central Mediterranean and could have been a factor leading, in the 8th century B.C., to Carthage succeeding Tyre as the main Phoenician city. There is also some evidence that the Phoenicians may have even reached some of the Atlantic islands such as the Azores and Canaries.[24] Ultimately, it was the rise in Greek power in the east, the barrier of the Atlantic in the west and the rise of Rome that bought an end to Phoenician power.[25] In sum, the Phoenician influence along the Mediterranean coastline appears to be both a consequence of great initiative and impressive seafaring skills that was instigated by the promise of trade and pressures from the rise in other Mediterranean powers to the east. Types of Boats The initial attempts in seafaring by Phoenicians are thought to have been quite crude based on travel between islands by means of rafts followed by more sophisticated but still crude sailing vessels inspired by the need to fish.[26] The first boats seemed to have consisted of a keel, a rounded hull and a raised platform for the steersman with the oars intersecting the bulwark.[27] This formed a template for a subsequent craft where four upright rowers operated curved oars in a boat that lacked a rudder with a mast held aloft by two ropes secured at the front and rear of the vessel. The mast, however, seems not to have been used for a sail, but to support a viewing structure from which an archer or other attacker was able to launch missiles. From this, a larger vessel evolved with a low bow and raised stern with a rudder with a pointed prow and oars on each side of about fifteen to twenty in number that the Greeks referred to as triaconters and penteconters that are represented on coi ns but were shown without a mast so must have been a type of refined rowing boat. Around 700 B.C. further advances occurred in ship construction in that, instead of being situated on one level, rowers were now placed on two levels thus doubling the number of oarsmen. These vessels were known as â€Å"biremes† by the Greeks and incorporated two steering oars issuing from the stern some with a mast and yardarm to support a sail that came in two forms one designed for war, the â€Å"long ship†, and another, with a more rounded prow used for the purpose of trade.[28] Inspired by the Greek example, the Phoenicians also went on to develop their own version of the trireme with three levels of rowers.[29] The size of these vessels can be gauged by the fact that the top level consisted of 31 rowers.[30] The Phoenicians have also been credited with inventing both the keel and ram as well as the caulking of planks with bitumen though some believe that the ram or beaked prow is said to have been adopted by the Phoenicians from the Mycenaeans It was the use of an adjustable sail, more oarsmen and a double steering oar that led to increased speed and manoeuvrability allowing the furthest points of the Mediterranean to be reached and it was the round-shaped merchant ships called â€Å"gaulos† that was mainly relied on in this respect.[31] Such innovations to ship construction illustrate the commitment of the Phoenicians to seafaring and their seafaring skills were so renowned throughout the ancient world that Phoenician ships and sailors were often co-opted into foreign war fleets.[32] Navigation The Phoenicians are thought to have invented the art of navigation. They used oars when there was little or no wind and large square sails at other times. Although they obviously practiced coastal navigation, the distribution of ports indicates that more long distance open sea voyages were also undertaken.[33] The fact that the Phoenicians had important centres at Sardinia, Sicily and Ibiza suggests that they often sailed the high seas. This would have involved extended periods at sea essential for the effective transportation of goods. They would probably, however, have employed short coastal journeys to travel from one port to the next but relied on deep sea navigation for longer voyages[34] and in places like the Aegean, with the many islands and dangerous currents, oars would have been used rather than sails. It is thought that the Phoenicians were also able to sail at night and used the Pole star and knowledge of astronomy for navigation. This knowledge along with the fact that , given favourable viewing conditions, land is nearly always visible anywhere in the Mediterranean -allowed the Phoenicians to use their seafaring skills to good effect. Conclusion The Phoenicians obviously depended on seafaring skills in order to extend trade links and their influence throughout the Mediterranean and beyond. This seems to have gone hand in hand with a need to develop more sea worthy vessels and navigational abilities to venture further into the open seas. Evidence from historical documents, such as found in Herodotus and others, indicate the extent of Phoenician maritime skills that evolved in tandem with the foundation of ever distant colonies and trading outposts. These skills seem to have been further encouraged by the advantages that came from the home ports being located where raw material from the west, which were in demand by countries in the Levant, could be traded for finished products. The Phoenicians were able to exploit this further by producing high quality manufactured goods that were exported to all areas thus increasing their economic power and wealth that allowed more sophisticated ships to be built for longer voyages. This te ndency is reflected in the progressive growth in Phoenician influence and colonisation from east to west from about 12,000 B.C. onwards. Trade went first, however, with colonisation following when the opportunity arose. Ultimately, however, Phoenician influence may have declined in the Mediterranean due to an over-reliance on seafaring that was unable to compete with more land based powers. In other words, their greatest strength eventually became their greatest weakness. Bibliography Aubert, M. E. (2001) The Phoenicians and the West – Politics, Colonies and Trade. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Boardman, J. Edwards, I. E. S., Hammond N. G. L. (1991) ‘Preface’ in, The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries B.C. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Basch, L. (1969) Phoenician Oared Ships. The Mariner’s Mirror. 55, pp. 139-162. Barnett, R.D. (1958) Early Shipping in the Near East. Antiquity 32 (128): pp. 220-230. Bass, G. F. (1972) A History of Seafaring based on Under-water Archaeology. Walker Company: London. Boucher-Colozier, E. 1953. Cahiers de Byrsa III, 11. Casson, L. (1971) Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World. Princeton University Press: Princeton. Culican, W. (1991) ‘Phoenicia and Phoenician colonization.’ In The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries. B.C. J. Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, N. G. L Hammond, editors. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge) pp. 461-545. de Sà ©lincourt, A. (1959) The Histories (Herodotus). Penguin: Harmonsworth. Diodorus Siculus. (1935) Library of History. C. H. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA. Frankenstein, S. 1979 ‘The Phoenicians in the Far West: a function of Neo-Assyrian imperialism. In, Power and Propoganda. A Symposium on Ancient Empires. M. T. Larsen, editor. (Akademisk Forlag: Copenhagen) pp. 263-294. Guthrie, J. 1970. Bizzare Ships of the Nineteenth Century. Hutchinson: London. Grayson, A. K. (1991) Boardman, J. Edwards, I. E. S., Hammond N. G. L. (1991) ‘Assyrian Civilization’. In The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries B.C. J. Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, N. G. L Hammond, editors. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. pp. 194-228. Greenberg, M. (1997) Ezekiel 21-37: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Bible, Vol 22A. Doubleday: New York. Harden, D. (1948) The Phoenician on the West Coast of Africa. Antiquity. 22: p. 147. Harden, D. (1962) The Phoenicians. Thames and Hudson: London. Harrison, R. J. (1988) Spain at the Dawn of History: Iberian, Phoenicians and Greeks. Thames and Hudson: London. Hencken, O’Neil. H. (1932) The Archaeology of Cornwall and Scilly. Methuen: London. Hill, G. F. (1910) Greek Coins of Phoenicia. British Museum. Holst, S. (2005) Phoenicians: Lebanon’s Epic Heritage. Cambridge and Boston Press: Los Angeles. Moscati, S. and Grassi, P. (2001) The Phoenicians. I.B. Tauris: London. Perrot G. and Chipiez, C. (1893) Histoire de lArt dans lAntiquità ©. Hachette: Paris. Rawlinson, G. (2004) History of Phoenicia. Kessinger:Montana Tilley, A. (2004) Seafaring on the Ancient Mediterranean. BAR International Series. 1268. Archaeopress/J. and E. Hedges: Oxford. 1 Footnotes [1] Holst, 2005 [2] See, for example, Judgement of Ezekiel 26-1– â€Å"Judgement on Tyre† in Greenberg, 1997 [3] Perrot and Chipiez, 1893 [4] Culican, 1991 [5] Tilley 2004 p. 76 [6] Tilley, 2004; p. 77 [7] Bass, 1972 [8] Tilley, 2004; p. 78 [9] Harden, 1962; p. 158. [10] Moscati and Grassi, 2001; p.85. [11] Harrison 1988; p. 42 [12] See, for example, Boucher-Colozier, 1953 [13] Hill, 1910 [14] Frankenstein, 1979 [15] Aubert, 2001; p. 70 [16] Culican 1991; p. 486 [17] Harrison, 1988 [18] see de Sà ©lincourt, 1959 [19] Harden, 1962; p. 171 [20] Hencken, 1932. [21] Guthrie, 1970; p. 103 [22] Tilley, 2004; p. 80 [23] Harden, 1962; p.171 [24] See, for example, Diodorus Siculus 1935 v. 20; Harden, 1948 [25] Boardman et al. 1991; p. xvi. [26] Rawlinson,; 2004 p. 122. [27] Ibid. [28] Perrot and Chipiez, 1893; p. 34 [29] Basch, 1969 [30] Casson, 1971 p. 95 [31] Barnett, 1958 [32] Grayson,1991; p. 220 [33] Aubert, 2001; p. 167 [34] Moscati and Grassi (2001); p. 84

Triumph Of The Will Film Studies Essay

Triumph Of The Will Film Studies Essay There are many contrasting opinions on the subject. Some believe that the movie is a piece of Nazi propaganda meant to promote the Nazi image and discourage its enemies. Others believe it is a factual presentation of an event, without possessing any intentional propaganda. Whichever the answer, it is well known that Leni Riefenstahls career has been haunted by Triumph of the Will to this day. To properly judge whether Triumph of the Will was a documentary or propaganda, an accurate definition must be stated. The word propaganda derives from the name of an organization set up in 1622 by the Roman Catholic Church to carry on missionary work, the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (Congregations de Propaganda Fide). Today propaganda is seen as the systematic effort to manipulate other peoples beliefs, attitudes or actions. The propagandist has a specified goal or set of goals and to achieve these he deliberately selects facts, arguments, images, etc. to present them in the ways he believes will have the most persuasive effect. A documentary is defined as a work, such as a film or television program, presenting political, social, or historical subject matter in a factual and informative manner and often consisting of actual news films or interviews accompanied by narration. Originating from official documentation released for various reasons, it has since become the standard name of non-fiction programmers which attempt to present their subject matter based on fact. In 1934 Hitler commissioned Leni Riefenstahl; the only director whom he believed came close to rivaling the work of Eisenstein, to produce an artistic film about the Party convention at Nuremberg, Triumph of the Will. In her book on the film, Riefenstahl notes that The preparations for the Party convention were made in concert with the preparations for the camera work. In reality however, the rally was intended from the outset to be the stage for a spectacular piece of film propaganda glorifying Nazism. Although Triumph of the Will was indeed about the Nuremberg Party Congress, preparations for the rally were carefully constructed around the preparations for the film. The Third Reichs architect, Albert Speer, carefully constructed the groundwork for the event, with grandiose building arrangements and precise plans for marches. The city of Nuremberg became a stage-set for Riefenstahls film, with a sea of swastika banners, bonfires and torches. Riefenstahls cinematic technique creates a sense of feverish movement and a seemingly endless array of banners and people. Leni Riefenstahl has always claimed, however, that she knew nothing of the objectives of the Nuremberg Rally. When she described the conception of the film she said, Shortly after he came to power Hitler called me to see him and explained that he wanted a film about a Party Congress, and wanted me to make it. My first reaction was to say that I did not know anything about the way such a thing worked or the organization of the Party, so that I would obviously photograph all the wrong things and please nobody even supposing supposing that I could make a documentary, which I had never yet done. Hitler said that this was exactly why he wanted me to do it: because anyone who knew all about the relative importance of the various people and groups and so on, might make a film that would be pedantically accurate, but this was not what he wanted. He wanted a film showing the congress through a non-expert eye, selecting just what was most artistically satisfying in terms of spectacle, I supp ose you might say. He wanted a film which would move, appeal to, and impress an audience which was not necessarily interested in politics. In an interview in 1964, reprinted in A Biographical Dictionary of the Cinema by David Thomson, Riefenstahl made clear that she felt Triumph of the Will was a recording of an event, not a propaganda film, said, If you see this film again today you ascertain that it doesnt contain a single reconstructed scene. Everything in it is true. And it contains no tendentious commentary at all. It is history. A pure historical film it is film-verity. It reflects the truth that was then in 1934, history. It is therefore a documentary. Not a propaganda film. Oh! I know very well what propaganda is. That consists of recreating events in order to illustrate a thesis, or, in the face of certain events, to let one thing go in order to accentuate another. I found myself, me, at the heart of an event which was the reality of a certain time and a certain place. My film is composed of what stemmed from that. It cannot be denied that Triumph of the Will is a record of an event. It is a film of an actuality and happened when and where the film says it did. In an account of the making of the film, Riefenstahl writes that she was involved in the Rallys planning and conceived the event with filming in mind. As Susan Sontag (a revered novelist and director) reiterates in her article entitled Fascinating Fascism: The Rally was planned not only as a spectacular mass meeting, but as a spectacular propaganda film. However, by 1993 in The Wonderful, Horrible Life of Leni Riefenstahl, Riefenstahl claimed that she was not involved in the design of the Rally I just observed and tried to film it well. The idea that I helped to plan it is downright absurd. The film was financed by the Nazi Government, commissioned by Hitler himself, completed with the full cooperation of all involved, with huge resources at her disposal an unlimited budget, crew of 120 and between 30 and 40 cameras. It stands as a powerful artistic representation of the ideas in Hitlers book Mien Kemp work, extreme nationalism, and belief in corporative state socialism, a private army, a youth cult, and the use of propaganda and the submission of all decisions to the supreme leader, i.e. himself. The film, however, reached and influenced far more people than the book ever could. Riefenstahl claimed in The Wonderful, Horrible Life of Leni Riefenstahl that it was Not a documentary but a work of art, [there was] no commentary in the normal sense of the word. Theres no commentator to explain everything. Thats the way it differs from a documentary or a propaganda film. If it were propaganda, as many say, theyd be a commentator to explain the significance and value of the occasion. This wasnt the case. In contrast, Susan Sontag in Fascinating Fascism claims that it is the most successful, most purely propagandistic film ever made, whose very conception negates the possibility of the film-makers having an aesthetic or visual concept independent of propaganda. Just as there are critics who argue that Triumph of the Will is the filming of an actual event and, as such, is a documentary, there are others who speak of the sensationalist and propagandist techniques used to promote the event in the film. Images such as the opening scenes, where Hitlers plane is flying through the clouds, giving a sense of divinity and being above it all, and the clever filming of the crowds watching Hitlers procession on the streets which give the impression that every street Hitler drove on was packed with adoring people illustrate the use of these techniques and indicate more suspicious aspirations from the director. Of course, there are critics who choose a point of neutrality, favoring each side of the argument equally. They argue that propaganda is a part of all film. Paul Rotha (a famous writer and director of Riefenstahls time) said, In one form or another, directly or indirectly, all films are propagandist. The general public is influenced by every film it sees. The dual physic-psychological appeal of pictorial movement and sound is so strong that if it is made with imagination and skill, the film can stir the emotions of any audience. Or as Robert Flaherty (often proclaimed as one of the founding fathers of documentary film) so eloquently declared, Sometimes you have to lie. One often has to distort a thing to catch its true spirit. Many can argue the different options regarding Triumph of the Will, saying it is a documentary, it is propaganda, or it became propaganda unintentionally. However, three points which cannot be refuted indicate that Leni Riefenstahl intentionally made the film propaganda. The fact that she was chosen and funded by Hitler to make the event appeal to the masses would immediately let her know that she needed to produce a film which gave the people the impression Hitler wanted. The angles of Hitler above the adoring crowd as he speaks and the scenes of his plane coming out of the clouds are obvious propagandist techniques to elevate and deify Hitler. Finally, the camera angle manipulation in the film, which made the crowds seem even larger than they were, would not be present in a true documentary which sought to produce the facts. This is obvious evidence of conscious propaganda on the part of Riefenstahl. As such, it is safe to conclude that Triumph of the Will was an intentional piece of propaganda meant to persuade the people to follow certain values.

Robert Jordans Wheel of Time :: Robert Jordan Wheel of Time

Robert Jordan's Wheel of Time â€Å"The Wheel of Time turns, and Ages come and pass, leaving memories that become legend. Legend fades to myth, and even myth is long forgotten when the Age that gave it birth comes again. In one Age, called the Third Age by some, an Age yet to come, an Age long past, a wind rose in the Mountains of Mist. The wind was not the beginning. There are neither beginnings nor endings to the turning of the Wheel of Time. But it was a beginning.† (Jordan, 1). In the world of Robert Jordan’s bestselling fantasy series, "The Wheel of Time", the life of the ordinary people has been undergoing some extraordinary changes. The legendary Dragon has been Reborn, and the Last Battle to decide the fate of humanity draws nigh. Meanwhile, outside of this world sit millions of readers, from all reaches of life, waiting anxiously for the next chapter in the story to be told. They debate what has happened, what it means in the context of the story, what it means for the future of the Wheel, as well as how it impacts their lives’. The Wheel of Time is a world where absolute good battles absolute evil, and yet shades of grey cloud the landscape. A world of hope and despair, a world of peace and war. From this world a following has grown. People from different cultures, different languages, and different political ideologies gravitate together forming a cohesive group that helps to spread the word about the work of Robert Jordan. In much the same manner that J.R.R. Tolkien created a myth for the modern ages with his saga "The Lord of the Rings" and George Lucas has done with his "Star Wars" series of movies, so has Robert Jordan entered into the realm of mythology with his work "The Wheel of Time". And this myth, like those which have come recently, and those from antiquity, has created a community of followers around it. They are drawn together initially because of a personal interest, and they stay not only for that interest, but because of the community that grows as a result of engaging themselves with this story. The world of the Wheel is one that is beginning to see turmoil when it is first introduced to the readers. Winter is holding on much longer than it should, and there is fear in the air (Jordan Eye 11). Robert Jordan's Wheel of Time :: Robert Jordan Wheel of Time Robert Jordan's Wheel of Time â€Å"The Wheel of Time turns, and Ages come and pass, leaving memories that become legend. Legend fades to myth, and even myth is long forgotten when the Age that gave it birth comes again. In one Age, called the Third Age by some, an Age yet to come, an Age long past, a wind rose in the Mountains of Mist. The wind was not the beginning. There are neither beginnings nor endings to the turning of the Wheel of Time. But it was a beginning.† (Jordan, 1). In the world of Robert Jordan’s bestselling fantasy series, "The Wheel of Time", the life of the ordinary people has been undergoing some extraordinary changes. The legendary Dragon has been Reborn, and the Last Battle to decide the fate of humanity draws nigh. Meanwhile, outside of this world sit millions of readers, from all reaches of life, waiting anxiously for the next chapter in the story to be told. They debate what has happened, what it means in the context of the story, what it means for the future of the Wheel, as well as how it impacts their lives’. The Wheel of Time is a world where absolute good battles absolute evil, and yet shades of grey cloud the landscape. A world of hope and despair, a world of peace and war. From this world a following has grown. People from different cultures, different languages, and different political ideologies gravitate together forming a cohesive group that helps to spread the word about the work of Robert Jordan. In much the same manner that J.R.R. Tolkien created a myth for the modern ages with his saga "The Lord of the Rings" and George Lucas has done with his "Star Wars" series of movies, so has Robert Jordan entered into the realm of mythology with his work "The Wheel of Time". And this myth, like those which have come recently, and those from antiquity, has created a community of followers around it. They are drawn together initially because of a personal interest, and they stay not only for that interest, but because of the community that grows as a result of engaging themselves with this story. The world of the Wheel is one that is beginning to see turmoil when it is first introduced to the readers. Winter is holding on much longer than it should, and there is fear in the air (Jordan Eye 11).

Voltaire’s Views of Religion and State Expressed In Candide Essay

Voltaire’s Views of Religion and State Expressed In Candide  Ã‚  Ã‚      Throughout Candide, Voltaire uses satire as a tool to reveal his controversial views regarding religion and State. He reveals the corruption, hypocrisy and immorality present in the way in which government and religion operated during his lifetime. Most particularly, he criticizes violent government behaviour (ie; war) and the behaviour of members of the aristocracy, who constituted the bulk of high ranking government and religious leaders. Through satirical comments made in Candide, Voltaire exposes the corruption and greed rife in the government. He also reveals his displeasure with the manner in which the parliamentary system operated, expressing the ineffectiveness and ineptness of power hungry politicians who refused to agree or compromise. â€Å"Let us work without arguing, that is the only way to make life endurable.† (Voltaire: 1947). Voltaire also makes a poi... ...ugh powerful, intelligent use of satire, Voltaire makes his personal views clear and encourages the reader to challenge the way in which religion and the State operate. Bibliography Andrews, Wayne. Voltaire. New York: New Directions Pub. 1981 Gay, Peter.   Voltaire's Politics.   New York: Random House,1965 Weitz, Morris. Philosophy in literature. Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press.1963 Volatire, Francois-Marie,   Candide, Penguin Publishers, New York, 1947.

Business & Ethics of Becton Dickinson and the Safety Syringe Controversy Author

Becton Dickinson has been in the middle of the controversy regarding the manufacturing, sale and monopoly of safety syringes used by hospitals, clinics, and doctor and dentist offices.   When the epidemic of AIDS and other lethal and infectious diseases spread across the nation, healthcare workers were still using a conceptualization of the original type of syringe created over 150 years ago (Holding and Carlsen, 1998; Holding and Carlsen, 1998).The healthcare workers realized that they were no longer safe and fought to get safer standards and equipment for use in the work place.By 1998, the federal patent office has given patents to over 1000 designs for safety syringes.   However, only a few were on the market and their initial cost was exorbitant. Even with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s (OSHA) enactment of the Bloodborne Pathogen Standard in 1991, and the Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act little has been truly done to protect the healthcare wor kers (Holding & Carlsen, 1998; Holding and Carlsen, 1998, Armstrong, 1991; Vadgama, 2002; Workers at risk, 2002).A prime example was in 2002 when it was approximated that 1600 healthcare workers could contract HIV through needle sticks in that year (Vadgama, 2002),   with a rough estimate cost of $255,000 for the direct and indirect costs associated with that one needle stick (Armstrong, 1991).The fact that Becton Dickinson purchased a number of the patents for safer syringes, they only offered on size when they finally started to manufacture the syringe.   The 3cc was fine for a few tasks in hospitals and clinics, but the 5cc and 10cc were used more often.Becton Dickinson did not offer the shielded syringes in this size, and by buying patents and negotiating with medical supply companies they did not need to make any other size.They continued to sell their original syringes (Holding & Carlson, 1998; Holding & Carlsen, 1998).   These actions defined by the utilitarian approach shows that the company was doing what was good for the company.   In essence, Becton Dickinson was basing their decisions on the corporate population rather than the public.After court battles and settlements the Becton Dickinson Company has finally begun to manufacture all types of safety syringes.   While they are not recommended, they are made and sold .The fact is that while Becton Dickinson was fighting to keep the new safety syringes from the public, Retractable Technologies, Inc created a better and safer syringe with top recommendations for safety and ease of use (Holding, 1991; Holding & Carlsen, 1998).   If Becton Dickinson would have acted ethically and manufactured and researched safety syringes, they would be at the top of the industry. References Armstrong, S. E. (1991, November/December). The Cost of Needle-Stick Injuries: The Impact of Safer Medical Devices.   Nursing Economics. 9(6).   pp. 426-433. Retrieved January 8, 2009 from http://search.ebscohost.co m/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hch&AN=12182254&site=ehost-liveHolding, R.  (April 14, 1998).  Safety Designs Proposed — But Not Produced.  Ã‚  San Francisco Chronicle.  ,  p.A7.  Retrieved  January 10, 2009,  from  Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center  via  Gale: http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPSHolding, R.,  &  Carlsen, W.  (April 13, 1998).  Epidemic Ravages Caregivers / Thousands die from diseases contracted through needle sticks.  Ã‚  San Francisco Chronicle.  ,  p.A1.  Retrieved  January 10, 2009,  from  Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center  via  Gale:

Organizational Culture of Starbucks

Appendages Research Paper Project title: Management 1 & 2 Program: BAA Faculty responsible: Walter Improvise Due date: Wee k 8 Weighting: 30% of the final grade for the subject. 70% on written material and 30% on presentation. All presentations will occur on the last adz of class. Content: A word document including between 3,000 and 4,000 words non including a literature review of at least 4 sources with at least half not from internet. All materials must come from academic sources. Project Overview: To enable students demonstrate their understanding of Managing Culture and how do they adapt it within an international atmosphere.Overall Aim: 1 . To enable students demonstrate their understanding of MGM and to learn from contemporary issues that will help them become more effective managers. 2. To enable students demonstrate their understanding of methodology in writing and to learn from the specific issues of writing a paper. Learning Outcomes: Demonstrate a basic understanding of us ing research methods within organizations. Understand how research approach are going to be effective on business issues. Begin forming research methodology skills specially those that can be applied in the business environment.A Company with a strong organizational culture and how it's Implemented and maintained Topic: Analyze the competitive issue and it's effects on the international business environment, . Purpose: Organizational culture is a term used more and today's business world. The focus of your paper and presentation should be: What specific actions ; practices could be used in business to acquire high levels of performance? How do these actions ; practices reflect or not reflect the customers behaviors, concepts ; models studied in this class.Tasks: The following major areas M in the written and the oral reservation: Description of the background, traits ; skills of the issue. Description of influences on an international context What can we learn from this issue; guide lines for effective strategies derived from the analysis? Your presentations should be clear ; reflect application of the material covered in this course. To enhance your presentation, visual aids, specific examples ; class involvement techniques are encouraged. Attendance is required of all students during all presentations.Each presentation will have a total of 7 minutes for each project and an additional 3 minutes will be allotted for questions and discussion. The written material used for your presentation should be handed to the lecturer one week before your scheduled presentation for screening. This presentation will count for 10% of your final subject average. Remission of documents During the last day, depending of your class, the following material shall be handed in: List of references including at least 1 Journals and 2 internet sources which will be used for the project.A literature review of the information sources used for this project. All tardiness will be counted in the same manner as explained at the end of the section for the main project. The following material should be handed to the lecturer on the date of presentation. These should include: 1 electronic file with all your resources used for the creation of your project ( articles, book references, interviews, field search, etc. ) Your power point presentation The word document.I Purpose or controlling idea is established initially, but inconsistently attended to. Paper shows some unity of purpose, though some material may not be well aligned. I Establishes strong sense of purpose, either explicitly or implicitly. Controlling purpose governs development and organization of the text. Attends to purpose as paper unfolds. | 2. Engagement with the text I Does not connect well to the source textures not show evidence of having understood the reading(s) that should inform the paper.Repeats or summarizes source text without analyzing or critiquing. I Shows evidence that materials were read and t hat those texts have shaped the student's writing. Shows basic understanding and ability to engage the substance of the text(s). Goes beyond repetition or summary of source text(s). I Shows clearly that the student read and understood the source text(s) that inform the paper. Summarizes key points or issues in the source text and then critically analyzes or synthesizes those ideas with the student's own ideas.Extends the ideas of the source text in interesting ways. | 3. Use of source material I It is often not clear whether information comes from the text vs.. The student. Len-text citations and end-of-text references are not formatted according to an appropriate style sheet. I Source materials are cited, though not always consistently. Let is generally clear when information comes from source text(s). Most in-text citations have appropriately formatted end-of-text references. I Source materials are introduced, conceptualized, and made relevant to the purpose of the paper. T is alw ays clear when information, opinions, or facts come from a source as opposed to coming from the student. Source materials are conventionally documented according to academic style (PAP, Category I Low Scores 1 or 2 | Average Score 31 High Scores 4 or 5 | 4. Organization I end. Paragraphs unpredictably structured. I Some evidence of organization, with appropriate moves in the introduction and conclusion and some partitioning in the body. Most paragraphs have topic sentences with supporting details.I Establishes clear pattern of development, so the paper feels organized and orderly from beginning to end. Uses effective generalization/ support patterning. Strong paragraphing. | 5. Support I Moves from idea to idea without substantial development; lacks depth. Lacks support for arguments or claims. I Achieves some depth and specificity of discussion. Provides specific detail in some places. I Develops specific ideas in depth with strong and appropriate supporting examples, data, experie nces. | 6. Style I Lacks control over sentence structure; difficult to follow.Little control over sentence patterns of subordination and coordination. Requires the reader to backtrack to make sense. Uses wrong words and awkward phrasing. I Style is competent, though not engaging or inventive. Shows reasonable command over phrasing and word choice. Some useful connections from sentence to sentence. I Student clearly controls the pace, rhythm, and variety of sentences. Sentence style is smooth and efficient, with good use of subordination and coordination. Words are well chosen and phrasing is apt and precise.Sentences move smoothly from one to the next, with clear moves that open, develop, and close topics. | 7. Command of sentence-level conventions Many errors of punctuation, spelling, capitalization (mechanics). Many grammatical errors (agreement, tense, case, number, pronoun use). I Some typical errors are in evidence, but overall, the writing is correct. I Few, if any, errors of punctuation, spelling, capitalization (mechanics). Few if any grammatical errors (agreement, tense, case, number, pronoun use). I

Web Server Attacks

Web Server Attacks Aaron G. Flaugh Strayer University Dr. Patricia White April 15, 2013 Web services are the most frequently attacked services of the modern network. There are three common attack types. They are all mitigated in different ways, this paper will discuss the means of protecting against them. The most effective attacks are call Denial of Services or DoS attacks. No organization is save from a denial of service attack even the federal government has been successfully attacked. How corporations can reduce the risk of these attacks will also be discussed.Web Application Vulnerabilities Web services have become one of the most frequently used technologies in business today, therefore it is no surprise, which are among the most frequently targeted applications. There are five common types of attacks for web services: SQL injection, remote file inclusion, local file inclusion, directory traversal and cross site scripting. Those were just the technical type attacks there are al so two other business layer attacks, they are email extraction and comment spamming.According to a survey group iMPERVA; cross-site scripting (XSS) accounts for twenty-nine percent of sampled attacks, directory transversal (DT) accounted for twenty-two percent, local file inclusion was fifteen percent of the attacks, SQL injections were fourteen percent of the malicious traffic, business logic attacks accounted for another fourteen percent and finally remote file inclusion only accounted for six percent of the traffic. The business logic attacks were split as follows email extraction was nine percent and comments spamming accounted for five percent of the section. Cross-Site ScriptingIn this attack type the attacker attempts to hijack a user session then steal the information that they need to log on to the site. Sometimes they hijacker inserts hostile content or redirect the user to a malicious site to steal information. The final flaw that is used is not properly validating and es caping that content. Directory Traversal Directory traversal is attacking parts of a web site that are not typically exposed to the public viewers. This an exploit of the security of the web server. It is also possible to use this attack by not properly removing user-supplied file names to the file API’s.SQL Injection Attacks against the background database server is called SQL injection attacks. Using this type of attack the attacker is able to steal the data contained on the page or site. This attack is most viable when user input is either incorrectly filtered for escaped characters in the SQL statements or the user input is not typed appropriately. Combating Web Server Attacks There are several things that users can do to protect themselves from web server attacks. First they can patch their operating systems up-to-date. Second, install a personal firewall, anti-virus and anti-malware tools.Use complex usernames and passwords, and change passwords regularly. Finally, turn off client-side scripting such as JavaScript or ActiveX. On the web server side, there are some suggested fixes. First of all implement SSL connections however, it used to be that 128-bit encryptions was sufficient according to Saumil Shah from Net Square. Now it is not uncommon to utilize 1024-bit RSA encryption on SSL certificates. Second, run a best practices analyzer or threat analyzer and implement security fixes. Another, security method to protect internal resources through the use of reverse proxy servers.The final solution to these web attacks is the human element, verify code written by developers and correct any errors discovered. Denial of Service Attacks The most feared attacks on a network is denial of service attack or a distributed denial of service attack. In both attacks the objective is very simple as the name implies it is to disrupt the flow of information into a network, generally the objective is not to steal data or release confidential information. Denial o f service attacks are performed usually by a single attack thus, are much easier to defend against.Distributed denial of service attacks are much more difficult to detect and thus much more difficult to defend against. They are generally coordinated amongst many individuals or through automation using botnet malware. Defending and halting denial of service type attacks can be very easy to stop since they are from one threat. The first defense against this type of attack is the use of access control lists on either the firewall or on the border router. Cisco uses the following syntax in its IOS enabled devices: permit tcp eq .Within Cisco’s firewall products the PIX or the current Adaptive Security Appliance (ASA) the syntax is similar to that of the IOS devices. Cisco’s ASA platform has a much more diverse set of features to block attacks at the border of the network. The ASA con also be configured to detect and block ICMP flood attacks. The more sophisticated web se rvers can be configured the block http attacks. Cisco also offers products that are designed to detect and block single origin attackers. Most operating systems have firewall functions that are built into them.Third party security companies such as Symantec, Sophos, McAfee, and Zone Alarm offer personal firewalls to potentially block an incoming threat. This is the best alternative if a person or group doesn’t have control of their border devices. There are two other means by which a single attacker can be stopped. They are interrupting the communication between a hacked machine through the use null routes on a pc or device its, however this is sometimes very difficult to accomplish and only works on some Operating Systems.The final means by which to slow an attacker down is to enable web server security to block connections from the particular ip address. In a distributed denial of service attack there is generally no clear indication of which ip addresses are causing the ev ent. This make the DDoS attack extremely difficult to detect and defend against. Most the time DDoS traffic looks like ordinary network traffic, which makes detection difficult if not impossible in some cases. DDoS attack can be used against many different protocols used in network including TCP, UDP, ICMP and DNS, using flooding techniques to overwhelm a victim’s network.One of the best ways to prevent http or https flooding attacks is the incorporation of reverse proxy servers into the mix. The proxy server sits outside of the network and acts like a traffic cop in many ways. It doesn’t allow packets through that it deems at threat. It also breaks up or fragments the requests from the outside world. Department of Justice attacks Many organization has fallen victim to web server attacks. In October 2002, a DDoS attack was used to cripple the internet in the United States.This was done by simultaneously attacking eight of the thirteen root DNS servers. The Federal Gove rnment has fallen victim to DDoS a number of times, the Department of Justice has been attacked twice in the last eighteen months. In the last two notable events in January of 2012 and just this past January, the hacker group Anonymous has claim responsibility for the attacks. They were targeted in protest of the Stop Online Piracy Act and most recently in support of Aaron Swartz who had recently committed suicide.The only possible way that DDoS attacks could be carried out against the government’s servers is either enlisting thousands of people to assist by flooding the webservers with http requests or by the use of malware and the use of botnets. In either case the, it would take a lot of time to detect the attack and even more time to stop the attack. DDoS attacks on the Federal Government would need to be extremely complex and would take a long time to plan and carry out. I do not believe that they are as easy to carry out as some make it out to be.In order to mitigate at tacks in the future the Government needs to do several things. Implement reverse proxy server in front of the web servers. Make sure that all security fixes are up-to-date on all servers. Implement policies and procedures tracking changes to the web server security settings. Verify all user supplied information through the use of security images or the use of services like capture. Use of web services are common these days. Corporations, users and Government all need to take steps to protect themselves from web server attacks.This can be done in a variety of ways and is the responsibility of the information services to help management understand and prevent these attacks. References Geiger, William (2001). SANS Security Essentials GSEC Practical Assignment 1. 2f Practively Guarding Against Unknown Web Server Attacks Murphy, David (26 January, 2013). Pro-Swartz Hackers Attack U. S. Department of Justice Website retrieved from http://www. pcmag. com O’Keefe, Ed (20 January, 201 2). How was the Justice Department Website Attacked? Retrieved from: http://www. washingtonpost. com Romm, Tony (19 January, 2013).After Anonymous claims hack, DOJ site back. Retrieved from: http://www. politico. com Shah, Saumil (2002). Top Ten Web Attacks Presentation at BlackHat Asia Thatcher, Greg. How to Stop a Denial of Service Attack? Retrieved from: http://www. gregthatcher. com Weiss, Aaron 02 July, 2012). How to Prevent DoS Attacks Retrieved from: http://www. esecurityplanet. com Cisco Systems (2004). Defeating DDOS Attacks White Paper Citrix Systems Protecting Web Applications from Attack and Misuse Imperva (2012). Imperva’s Web Application Attack Report Government of Hong Kong (2008). Web Attacks and Countermeasures